Maori Cultures
Māori are the tangata whenua (indigenous people of the land) of New Zealand and their culture is an integral part of New Zealand life. About 15% of the country’s population of 3.8 million is of Māori descent. Māori are a tribal people and their tribes are known as iwi. Visitors to New Zealand are presented with many opportunities to experience Māori culture first-hand. Best known of these is the geo-thermal region of Rotorua in the North Island, where tourists can enjoy Māori kai (food) cooked on hot stones underground as part of a traditional hangi. They can also enjoy a Māori powhiri (welcome), visit local marae (meeting houses), listen to kapa haka (traditional performances of song and dance) and relax in the popular thermal pools. Māori culture forms the basis of New Zealand culture and is the essence of its society.
Figure 1: In recent times there has been a revival in traditional waka design, building and navigation techniques. (Source: newzealand.com) |
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Figure 2: The facial tattoo on this carved figure is known as a 'Moko'. Moko are designed to display ancestral and tribal messages that apply to the wearer. These messages narrate the wearer's family, sub-tribal and tribal affiliations, and their placing within these social structures. This carving would be have been created to commemorate an ancestor.
Figure 3: Kapa haka, the term used to describe Maori performance art, incorporates singing, dancing and facial expressions. Every action has a meaning, which ties to the world to see kapa haka performances during a marae stay or at a Maori concert. The national competitions are held every two years. (Source: newzealand.com)
Maori Origins
There are a number of theories about the origins of the Maori. Maori legend says that the Maori came from "Hawaiki", the legendary homeland about 1000 years ago. Some speculate that the island of Hawaiki were likely near Hawaii and others that Hawaiki is now inundated by the Pacific Ocean due to a rise in global sea level. Another theory suggests that the Maori originated in China, and travelled via Taiwan, the Philippines to Indonesia, onto Melanesia, reaching Fiji. From there to Samoa and on to the Marquesas, and turned South West to Tahiti, thence to the Cook Islands and finally to Aotearoa (New Zealand).
When the Maori arrived in Aotearoa (New Zealand) they found a land quite different to tropical Polynesia. New Zealand was not only colder, but it also much bigger in area. (In fact New Zealand is bigger than the rest of Polynesia put together.) They found islands that possessed unusual fauna including the largest bird in the world the Giant Moa and the worlds greatest aerial predator, the giant Haast Eagle. The landscape was also different. New Zealand is the only place in Polynesia whose mountains have snow. Not just a few snow capped mountains either. The Southern Alps in the South Island for example, are bigger than the European Alps in area. The North Island also has one main chain of mountains and in addition, contains many volcanoes including a super-volcano.
Maori Traditions
Before the coming of the Pakeha (white man) to New Zealand, all literature in Maori was orally passed onto succeeding generations. This included many legends and waiata (song). The most recognised tradition today is the "Haka" which is a war dance. The Haka was performed before the onset of war by the Maori last century, but has been immortalized by New Zealand's Rugby Team the All Blacks, who perform this dance before every game.
The traditional Maori welcome is called a powhiri, this involves a hongi which is a greeting that involves pressing noses as opposed to a kiss.
Another prominent feature of Maori culture is the striking tattoos that adorned the face. Full faced tattoos or "moko", amongst the Maori tribes was predominantly a male activity. Female forms of moko were restricted to the chin area, the upper lip, and the nostrils. Today the Moko still lives on as an increasing number of Maori are opting to receive their moko, in an effort to preserve and connect with their culture and identity.
A traditional form of cooking called a Hangi is a feast cooked in the earth. Stones are heated in a fire in a dug out pit and covered in cabbage leaves or watercress to stop the food from burning. Mutton, pork, chicken, potatoes and Kumera (a sweet potato) are then unusually lowered into the pit in a basket. The food is covered with Mutton cloth or similar and traditionally with flax. Finally earth is placed on top to keep in the steam. The food takes about 3 hours to cook. The Hangi is still popular and is a viable alternative to a weekend barbecue. The unique taste of food cooked in a Hangi can best be described as steamed food with an earthen flavour.
Maori Technology
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| Figure 4: Fishing lure. (Source: collections.tepapa.govt.nz) |
FISHING
Fishing techniques were already well developed throughout Polynesia by the time Maori reached New Zealand. The first settlers brought with them established technologies including nets, hooks, lures, spears, traps and dredges.
Flax replaced coconut fibres and other plant
material to make fishing lines and nets. Paua shell replaced mother of pearl shell on fishing lures to attract fish. Traps were made from flexible branches such as vines or manuka branches.
Fish Hooks
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| Figure 5: Fishing hook. (Source: jillsjottings.orconhosting.net.nz) |
Hooks were fashioned from wood, bone and shell. Wooden hooks could be made by coiling a
growing branch and securing it so it would continue to grow in the desired curved form. Once
cut from the tree, the hooks were buried in the hearth beneath a fire to render them inflexible.
Bone hooks were made by drilling out the central part of the hook and filing smooth with sandstone.
HINAKI
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| Figure 6: Hinaki. (Source: tepapa.govt.nz) |
Hinaki were used to trap eel (tuna). The entrance of the hinaki narrows like a funnel. Eels could
enter the trap by forcing their way through the funnel. Once inside, it was difficult for them to
exit the narrow end of the funnel. In the north of the North Island, they were made of the strong
flexible branches of mangemange (climbing fern). In the south, mangemange was not available and stronger traps had to be made for swifter flowing rivers. Split aerial roots of kiekie
were used. Eels migrating seaward in autumn were directed into hinaki by barriers (weirs) built of posts driven into the riverbed.
Taruke
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| Figure 6: Taruke. (Source: maorilifestyles.blogspot.com) |
Taruke were used to catch crayfish. Crayfish would fall through the opening and the flax net
at the mouth of the opening prevented them from escaping. They were made from young manuka stems, bent round a supplejack and manuka frame and tied together with flax and vines.
BIRDING
The extensive forests of New Zealand teemed with bird life. Maori developed birding techniques that were unknown in the rest of Polynesia. Methods of catching birds utilized knowledge of their feeding habits on various trees when flowering and producing fruit. Domesticated birds were sometimes used to attract prey to traps.
Some of the snares used included:
Waka kereru
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| Figure 6: Waka kereru. (Source: hvhsawhina.blogspot.com) |
This trap was filled with water and was set out when the miro berries were in season to catch
kereru (wood pigeon). The berries made the birds very thirsty and they were attracted to the
troughs of water. If they put their head through a noose, it tightened when the bird attempted to
fly away.
FOOD STORAGE
Much of the food was collected in the warmer months and needed to be preserved for winter.
Fish were dried in the sun. The removal of water ensured bacteria could not survive in the flesh.
Birds were cooked and placed in gourds sealed in their own fat. Cooking killed any bacteria
present and the fat seal prevented contamination by subsequent bacteria.
The gourds would be decorated with the feathers of whatever bird was inside to label its contents.
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| Figure 7: Decorated gourd. (Source: nzetc.victoria.ac.nz) |
Kumara, unable to grow all year round, were stored in rua kumara - low roofed storage pits in the ground. Soil, an effective insulator, maintained an even temperature necessary to keep the tubers alive over winter. The location of the pits were carefully chosen in slopping ground to ensure good drainage. Once dug, the pits were disinfected using fire. They were
lined with decaying wood and ferns to absorb moisture and aid insulation.
VESSELS
Hue (gourds), patua (bark baskets) and kumete (carved wooden bowls) were used for storing liquids. When ripe, the rind of hue becomes very hard and the inner flesh dries into a spongy matter that adheres to the inside of the gourd. Small stones were placed inside and the vessel shaken to loosen the desiccated flesh from the rind.
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| Figure 8: Hue. (Source: teara.govt.nz) |
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| Figure 9: Gourds. (Source: richardnunns.net.nz) |
Patua were made from a single sheet of inner bark from totara or manuka. The bark was generally steamed, aiding pliability so it could be bent into shape. The ends were tied to maintain the desired form. Apertures were filled with vegetable gum or clay.
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| Figure 9: Patua- bark basket. (Source: collections.tepapa.govt.nz) |
STONE TOOLS
Chips struck from blocks of obsidian (volcanic glass) and chert gave sharp edged, ready-made
knives. Sandstone was used as a grindstone to give a smooth surface and sharpen blades.
Sharp-edged flakes were struck off greywacke boulders to saw through bone and stone.
Holes were made using a tuwiri (drill) that was manipulated with two cords. A hard sharpened
stone was used as a drill tip and sand and water was added as an abrasive to aid the process.
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| Figure 10: Tuwiri - drill. (Source: hvhsawhina.blogspot.com) |
Toki (adzes) and whao (chisels) were used for chopping and carving wood. The blades were made from fine-grained rock such as argillite, basalt, greywacke and pounamu (greenstone, jade). Most stones were first roughly shaped by removing chips with a hard round rock (hammerstone). The roughly shaped tool was then ground against sandstone to give the finish blade. Flax cord was used to lash the blade on to a wooden handle.
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| Figure 11: Taki - adze. (Source: squidoo.com) |
Pounamu was prized amongst all rocks. It was treasured not only for its beauty and rarity, but
also its toughness and the thinness to which it could be cut, making it perfect for sharp hardwearing implements and weaponry. Pounamu is difficult to chip, a property that is ideal for
blades but makes it difficult to fashion. It was first sawn with greywacke before being worked
with sand stone. A pierced gourd filled with water provided a continuous drip of water to aid
the sawing.
Since so much labour was put into making such a tool, they were generally passed down from generation to generation. Pounamu tools and weapons were most treasured and gained value
through the contact of the great ones of the past. Fame of a pounamu mere could be so great that prisoners of war asked to be killed by it.
TA MOKO (TATTOOING)
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| Figure 12: Uhi - Bone toothed comb. (Source: larskrutak.com) |
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| Figure 13: Pigment pot. (Source: carters.com.au) |
Uhi, a fine bone comb, was employed to make perforations in the skin. Blood was wiped away
with wisps of soft flax fibre and pigment was inserted in the cut groove. Pigment was made
from burning kauri gum, resinous heartwood and a wheto (vegetable caterpillar). The resultant
soot was moistened into a fine black pigment. When the face was too painful for chewing, the
person would be feed finely prepared food through a korere, a carved wooden funnel.
Malaysia Iban People
Iban Longhouse
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| Figure 14: women weaving the pua at the Iban longhouse. (Source: journeymalaysia.com) |
The Iban longhouse sits on stilts and normally accommodates the entire village. Unlike the land dayaks, the Ibans or Sea Dayaks position their villages on the banks of accessible waterways. The Ibans are great adventurers and take long sojourns across lands but prefer using the waterways to move about.
The longhouse is inhabited seldom more than 15 or 20years. There are various reasons as to why an Iban community would move. The new site would quite often be in the same tributary or in the same river, within a few miles from the old one perhaps because the good timber and planks are removed from the old longhouse and towed along the river to the new site. As Ibans practice shift cultivation, moving often results from looking for fertile land to till after the existing land has been exhausted. The same area is normally cultivated not more than 4 times at intervals of several years. Other reasons would be from enemy attacks sometimes causing burning of the longhouse, or an epidemic that hit the village or if the villagers have been hit with a string of bad luck or evil omens.
The Ibans conduct certain rituals upon opening new padifields etc. Life-sized images of a crocodile is molded in clay by an elder and placed on the land chosen for farming. This crocodile is believed to destroy all pests that eat the rice. Many Ibans as in other tribes claim to be closely related to certain animals in the jungle. For the Ibans it is the crocodile. Also it is believed that the Ribai, the River god sometimes appear as a crocodile but he may appear as a bear or a tiger, or the python or the mias (orangutan). Therefore the Ibans seldom kill these animals for fear that should he kill one which was really the Ribai, which in turn would cause him the ultimate fear of insanity.
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| Figure 15: visitors can opt to stay at the iban longhouse at sarawak culutral village. (Source: journeymalaysia.com) |
Living along rivers, each Iban family possesses at least one boat, big enough to fit 8persons and used mainly to transport to and from the padifields and for short trips. The village itself would have several larger boats used for long journeys and at least one war boat capable of carrying 50-100 men. 'Each boat, even one of the largest size, is hollowed from a single log, the freeboard being raised by lashing narrow planks to the edge of the hollowed log. In the middle of a large boat is a section, the freeboard of which is raised still higher, and which is covered by an arched roof of palm leaves. The boat is crossed at intervals of some three feet by seats. In traveling on the lower reaches of the rivers, the rowers sit two on each bench,side by side and facing the bow. On the upper reaches, where rapids abound, a deck is made by laying split bamboos along the length of the boat upon the benches, and the crew sits upon this deck in paddling, or stands upon it when poling the boat over rapids.' Charles Hose, Pagan Tribes of Borneo . If a boat is urgently required and none at hand is available, Ibans construct makeshift boats by stripping the bark from a big tree. This boat can be completed within 2 hours and are able to carry several men and baggage. Rattan strips are used to tie together the ends of the sheet of bark to make a bow and stern. The body of the boat is strengthened with ribs and longitudinal strips; and crossed pieces of wood are wedged in the middle to form seats. Apart from these material possessions, the Ibans and most other tribes prized their jars.. The more common jars stand about 3 ft in height and are brown with glazed finishing.
Musical and Dancing Heritage
The Iban as well as the Kayan and Kenyah also play an instrument resembling the guitar called Sape (instrument). The Sape (instrument) is the official musical instrument for the Malaysian state of Sarawak. It is played similarly to the way rock guitarists play guitar solos, albeit a little slower, but not as slow as blues. One example of Iban traditional music is the taboh.
The Ibans perform a unique dance called the ngajat. It serves many purposes depending on the occasion. During Gawais, it is used to entertain the people who in the olden days enjoy graceful ngajats as a form of entertainment. Iban men and women have different styles of ngajat. The ngajat involves a lot of precise body-turning movements. The ngajat for men is more aggressive and depicts a man going to war, or a bird flying (as a respect to the Iban god of war, Singalang Burong). The women's form of ngajat consists of soft, graceful movements with very precise body turns. Each ngajat is accompanied by the taboh or the body.
Religion, Culture, and Festivals
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| Fugure 16: An Iban woman prepares cotton for spinning. (Source: wikipedia.org) |
The Ibans were traditionally animist, although the majority are nowChristian, many continue to observe both Christian and traditional ceremonies, particularly during marriages or festivals.
Significant festivals include the rice harvesting festival Gawai Dayak, the main festival for the Ibans.Other festivals include the bird festival Gawai Burong and the spirit festival Gawai Antu. The Gawai Dayak festival is celebrated every year on 1 June, at the end of the harvest season, to worship the Lord Sempulang Gana. On this day, the Ibans get together to celebrate, often visiting each other. The Iban traditional dance, the ngajat, is performed accompanied by the taboh and gendang, the Ibans' traditional music. Pua Kumbu, the Iban traditional cloth, is used to decorate houses. Tuak, which is originally made of rice, is a wine used to serve guests. Nowadays, there are various kinds of tuak, made with rice alternatives such as sugar cane, ginger and corn.
The Gawai Burong (the bird festival) is held in honour of the war god, Singalang Burong. (Singalang the Bird). This festival is initiated by a notable individual from time to time and hosted by individual longhouses. The Gawai Burong originally honoured warriors, but during more peaceful times evolved into a healing ceremony. The recitation of pantun (traditional chants by poets) is a particularly important aspect of the festival.
For the majority of Ibans who are Christians, some Christian festivals such as Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, and other Christian festivals are also celebrated. Most Ibans are devout Christians and follow the Christian faith strictly.
Despite the difference in faiths, Ibans of different faiths do help each other during Gawais and Christmas. Differences in faith is never a problem in the Iban community.[citation needed] The Ibans believe in helping and having fun together.
The Ibans men dress flamboyantly as compared with tribes living in the interior, who dress in little but chawats or bark cloth. He enjoys adorning brightly coloured cloth about the waist, turbans with feathers and other ornaments. The Iban woman wears a short skirt from the waist to the knee and a long-sleeved jacket both woven cotton material. She also wears a corset made from a stack of rattan rings to enclose her body from breast to waist. Each rattan ring is sheathed in small rings of beaten brass. The corset is made to open partially or completely down the front, but is often worn continuously for long periods and is removed when pregnant.
Reference List
Maori Culture. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.newzealand.com/travel/media/topic-index/maori-culture/maori-culture_home.cfm
Maori Technology. (2001). Retrieved from http://www.aucklandmuseum.com/site_resources/library/Education/Teachers_Guide/Teacher_Resources_Library/Maori_Education_Kits/Maori_09MaoriTechnology_1_.pdf
Maori History. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.virtualoceania.net/newzealand/culture/maori/
The Ibans or Sea Dayaks - Sarawak. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.journeymalaysia.com/MCUL_iban.htm
Iban people. (2012). Retrieved 10 October 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iban_people
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